Routing Decisions (1.2)
The key to understanding the role of a router in the network is to understand that a router is a Layer 3 device responsible for forwarding packets. However, a router also operates at Layers 1 and 2.
Router Switching Function (1.2.1.1)
A primary function of a router is to forward packets toward their destination. This is accomplished by using a switching function, which is the process used by a router to accept a packet on one interface and forward it out of another interface. A key responsibility of the switching function is to encapsulate packets in the appropriate data link frame type for the outgoing data link.
After the router has determined the exit interface using the path determination function, the router must encapsulate the packet into the data link frame of the outgoing interface.
What does a router do with a packet received from one network and destined for another network? The router performs the following three major steps:
- Step 1. De-encapsulates the Layer 3 packet by removing the Layer 2 frame header and trailer.
- Step 2. Examines the destination IP address of the IP packet to find the best path in the routing table.
- Step 3. If the router finds a path to the destination, it encapsulates the Layer 3 packet into a new Layer 2 frame and forwards the frame out the exit interface.
As shown in Figure 1-28, devices have Layer 3 IPv4 addresses and Ethernet interfaces have Layer 2 data link addresses. For example, PC1 is configured with IPv4 address 192.168.1.10 and an example MAC address of 0A-10. As a packet travels from the source device to the final destination device, the Layer 3 IP addresses do not change. However, the Layer 2 data link addresses change at every hop as the packet is de-encapsulated and re-encapsulated in a new frame by each router. It is very likely that the packet is encapsulated in a different type of Layer 2 frame than the one in which it was received. For example, an Ethernet encapsulated frame might be received by the router on a FastEthernet interface, and then processed to be forwarded out of a serial interface as a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) encapsulated frame.
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Figure 1-28 Encapsulating and De-Encapsulating Packets
Send a Packet (1.2.1.2)
In the animation in the online course, PC1 is sending a packet to PC2.
Video 1.2.1.2: PC1 Sends a Packet to PC2
Go to the online course and play the animation of a packet being sent from PC1 to PC2.
PC1 must determine if the destination IPv4 address is on the same network. PC1 determines its own subnet by doing an AND operation on its own IPv4 address and subnet mask. This produces the network address that PC1 belongs to. Next, PC1 does this same AND operation using the packet destination IPv4 address and the PC1 subnet mask.
If the destination network address is the same network as PC1, then PC1 does not use the default gateway. Instead, PC1 refers to its ARP cache for the MAC address of the device with that destination IPv4 address. If the MAC address is not in the cache, then PC1 generates an ARP request to acquire the address to complete the packet and send it to the destination. If the destination network address is on a different network, then PC1 forwards the packet to its default gateway.
To determine the MAC address of the default gateway, PC1 checks its ARP table for the IPv4 address of the default gateway and its associated MAC address.
If an ARP entry does not exist in the ARP table for the default gateway, PC1 sends an ARP request. Router R1 sends back an ARP reply. PC1 can then forward the packet to the MAC address of the default gateway, the Fa0/0 interface of router R1.
A similar process is used for IPv6 packets. Instead of the ARP process, IPv6 address resolution uses ICMPv6 Neighbor Solicitation and Neighbor Advertisement messages. IPv6-to-MAC address mappings are kept in a table similar to the ARP cache, called the neighbor cache.
Forward to the Next Hop (1.2.1.3)
The following processes take place when R1 receives the Ethernet frame from PC1:
- R1 examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface, FastEthernet 0/0. R1, therefore, copies the frame into its buffer.
- R1 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4 packet in the data portion of the frame.
- R1 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame.
- Because the destination IPv4 address of the packet does not match any of the directly connected networks of R1, R1 consults its routing table to route this packet. R1 searches the routing table for a network address that would include the destination IPv4 address of the packet as a host address within that network. In this example, the routing table has a route for the 192.168.4.0/24 network. The destination IPv4 address of the packet is 192.168.4.10, which is a host IPv4 address on that network.
The route that R1 finds to the 192.168.4.0/24 network has a next-hop IPv4 address of 192.168.2.2 and an exit interface of FastEthernet 0/1. This means that the IPv4 packet is encapsulated in a new Ethernet frame with the destination MAC address of the IPv4 address of the next-hop router.
Because the exit interface is on an Ethernet network, R1 must resolve the next-hop IPv4 address with a destination MAC address using ARP:
- R1 looks up the next-hop IPv4 address of 192.168.2.2 in its ARP cache. If the entry is not in the ARP cache, R1 would send an ARP request out of its FastEthernet 0/1 interface and R2 would send back an ARP reply. R1 would then update its ARP cache with an entry for 192.168.2.2 and the associated MAC address.
- The IPv4 packet is now encapsulated into a new Ethernet frame and forwarded out the FastEthernet 0/1 interface of R1.
The animation in the online course illustrates how R1 forwards the packet to R2.
Video 1.2.1.3: R1 Forwards the Packet to R2
Go to the online course and play the animation of a packet being sent through three routers from sender to receiver.
Packet Routing (1.2.1.4)
The following processes take place when R2 receives the frame on its Fa0/0 interface:
- R2 examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface, FastEthernet 0/0. R2, therefore, copies the frame into its buffer.
- R2 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4 packet in the data portion of the frame.
- R2 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame.
- Because the destination IPv4 address of the packet does not match any of the interface addresses of R2, R2 consults its routing table to route this packet. R2 searches the routing table for the destination IPv4 address of the packet using the same process R1 used.
- The routing table of R2 has a route to the 192.168.4.0/24 network, with a next-hop IPv4 address of 192.168.3.2 and an exit interface of Serial 0/0/0. Because the exit interface is not an Ethernet network, R2 does not have to resolve the next-hop IPv4 address with a destination MAC address.
- The IPv4 packet is now encapsulated into a new data link frame and sent out the Serial 0/0/0 exit interface.
When the interface is a point-to-point (P2P) serial connection, the router encapsulates the IPv4 packet into the proper data link frame format used by the exit interface (HDLC, PPP, etc.). Because there are no MAC addresses on serial interfaces, R2 sets the data link destination address to an equivalent of a broadcast (MAC address: FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF).
The animation in the online course illustrates how R2 forwards the packet to R3.
Video 1.2.1.4: R2 Forwards the Packet to R3
Go to the online course and play the animation of a packet being sent from R2 to R3.
Reach the Destination (1.2.1.5)
The following processes take place when the frame arrives at R3:
- R3 copies the data link PPP frame into its buffer.
- R3 de-encapsulates the data link PPP frame.
- R3 searches the routing table for the destination IPv4 address of the packet. The routing table has a route to a directly connected network on R3. This means that the packet can be sent directly to the destination device and does not need to be sent to another router.
Because the exit interface is a directly connected Ethernet network, R3 must resolve the destination IPv4 address of the packet with a destination MAC address:
- R3 searches for the destination IPv4 address of the packet in its Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache. If the entry is not in the ARP cache, R3 sends an ARP request out of its FastEthernet 0/0 interface. PC2 sends back an ARP reply with its MAC address. R3 then updates its ARP cache with an entry for 192.168.4.10 and the MAC address that is returned in the ARP reply.
- The IPv4 packet is encapsulated into a new Ethernet data link frame and sent out the FastEthernet 0/0 interface of R3.
- When PC2 receives the frame, it examines the destination MAC address, which matches the MAC address of the receiving interface, its Ethernet network interface card (NIC). PC2, therefore, copies the rest of the frame into its buffer.
- PC2 identifies the Ethernet Type field as 0x800, which means that the Ethernet frame contains an IPv4 packet in the data portion of the frame.
- PC2 de-encapsulates the Ethernet frame and passes the IPv4 packet to the IPv4 process of its operating system.
The animation in the online course illustrates how R3 forwards the packet to PC2.
Video 1.2.1.5: R3 Forwards the Packet to PC2
Go to the online course and play the animation of a packet being sent from R3 to PC2.
Activity 1.2.1.6: Match Layer 2 and Layer 3 Addressing
Go to the online course to perform this practice activity.